into hairs, and the children say the hairs are like “fur.”  Then sheep’s wool is produced and we try to make thread.  Attempts at thread-making and then at weaving last a long time, and along with this come some history stories, probably arising out of the question, “How did people know about all this?” The children are told about the writings of Julius Caesar, and pictures of Roman ships and houses are shown, beside pictures of coracles and bee-hive dwellings, etc.  Old coins, a flint battle-axe, some Roman pottery are also shown, along with descriptions and pictures of the Roman villa at Brading and other Roman remains.  The children are thus helped to realise that other countries exist where the people were far ahead of those in this country, and they can begin to understand how social conditions vary, and how nations act upon each other.

The work varies considerably from year to year, according to how it takes hold upon the children’s interest.  But children of eight to nine are usually considered ready for broad ideas of the world as a whole, and the inquiry into where Julius Caesar came from, and why he came, gives a fair start.

CHAPTER XIII

NEW NEEDS AND NEW HELPS

     I am old, so old, I can write a letter.

Writing and reading have no place in the actual Kindergarten, much less arithmetic.  The stories are told to the child; drawing, modelling and such-like will express all he wants to express in any permanent form, and speech, as Froebel says, is “the element in which he lives.”  His counting is of the simplest, and the main thing is to see that he does not merely repeat a series while he handles material, but that the series corresponds with the objects.  Even this can be left alone if it seems to annoy the little one.  In the school he is on a very different level, he has attained to the abstract, he can use signs:  he can express thoughts which he could not draw, and can communicate with those who are absent.  He can read any letter received and he is no longer dependent on grown-ups for stories.  He can count his own money and can get correct change in small transactions, and he can probably do a variety of sums which are of no use to him at all.

Between these two comes what Froebel called the Transition or Connecting Class, in which the child learns the meaning of the signs which stand for speech, and those which make calculation less arduous for weak memories.

Much has been written as to when and how children are to be taught to read.  Some great authorities would put it off till eight or even ten.  Stanley Hall says between six and eight, while Dr. Montessori teaches children of five and even of four.  Froebel would have supported Stanley Hall and would wait till the age of six.  The strongest reason for keeping children back from books is a physiological one.  In the Psychology and Physiology of Reading[30] strong arguments are adduced against early reading as very injurious to eyesight, so it is surprising that Dr. Montessori begins so soon.  It has been said that her children only learn to write, not to read, but it is to be supposed that they can read what they write, and therefore can read other material.