that Froebel anticipated even the conclusions of modern psycho-analysis in his views about childish faults.  “The sources of these,” he says, are “neglect to develop certain sides of human life and, secondly, early distortion of originally good human powers by arbitrary interference with the orderly course of human development ... a suppressed or perverted good quality—­a good tendency, only repressed, misunderstood or misguided—­lies at the bottom of every shortcoming.”  Hence the only remedy even for wickedness is to find and foster, build up and guide what has been repressed.  It may be necessary to interfere and even to use severity, but only when the educator is sure of unhealthy growth.  The motto of the biologist on the subject of interference—­“When in doubt, refrain”—­exactly expresses Froebel’s doctrine of “passive or following” education, following, that is, the nature of the child, and “passive” as opposed to arbitrary interference.

Free from this, the child will follow his natural impulses, which are to be trusted as much as those of any other young animal; in other words, he will play, he will manifest his natural activities.  “The young human being—­still, as it were, in process of creation—­would seek, though unconsciously yet decidedly and surely, as a product of nature that which is in itself best, and in a form adapted to his condition, his disposition, his powers and his means.  Thus the duckling hastens to the pond and into the water, while the chicken scratches the ground and the young swallow catches its food upon the wing.  We grant space and time to young plants and animals because we know that, in accordance with the laws that live in them, they will develop properly and grow well; arbitrary interference with their growth is avoided because it would hinder their development; but the young human being is looked upon as a piece of wax, a lump of clay, which man can mould into what he pleases.  O man, who roamest through garden and field, through meadow and grove, why dost thou close thy mind to the silent teaching of nature?  Behold the weed; grown among hindrances and constraint, how it scarcely yields an indication of inner law; behold it in nature, in field or garden, how perfectly it conforms to law—­a beautiful sun, a radiant star, it has burst from the earth!  Thus, O parents, could your children, on whom you force in tender years forms and aims against their nature, and who, therefore, walk with you in morbid and unnatural deformity—­thus could your children, too, unfold in beauty and develop in harmony.”

At first play is activity for the sake of activity, not for the sake of results, “of which the child has as yet no idea.”  Very soon, however, having man’s special capacity of learning through experience, the child does gather ideas.  By this time he has passed through the stage of infancy, and now his play becomes to the philosopher the highest stage of human development at this stage, because now it is self-expression.