Whether al-Bīrūnī applied empirical methods to his analysis of ethics in Kitāb al-Jamāhir or not and whether he treated reason as the ultimate authority in religion and whether he was influenced in his treatment of ethics by Greek rationalism and naturalism, and if so in what ways, and whether he treated human nature as geometrical problem like Spinoza or whether he emphasised intrinsic value of the individual like Kant or whether he reduced ethics to calculus like Bentham or propagated a utilitarian ethics like J. S. Mill or criticised Bentham's hedonism like Bradley, are queries of most interesting nature.

Being extremely precise, one can say that al-Bīrūnīii in his Kitāb al-Jamāhir seems to be a true believer in revelations, the only source of human knowledge in regard to ethics and moral philosophy and the only basis of all human...